ATTENBOROUGH: The natural world is full of extraordinary animals
with amazing life histories.
Yet, certain stories are more intriguing than most.
The mysteries of a butterfly's life-cycle
or the strange biology of the emperor penguin.
some of these creatures were surrounded by myths and misunderstandings
for a very long time.
And some have only recently revealed their secrets.
These are the animals that stand out from the crowd.
The curiosities 1 find most fascinating of all.
Female Komodo dragons can give birth to live young
without having contact with a male.
And female aphids can clone themselves to produce hundreds of copies.
How and why do these very different creatures reproduce by virgin birth?
Most animals breed by sexual reproduction.
A male fertilises a female's eggs
and both parent's genes mix and produce young.
But, in nature, a few animals stray from this method
and breed in a different way.
In August, 2005, here in London Zoo,
a female Komodo dragon called Sungai
laid a clutch of eggs and, several months later, four baby dragons hatched.
That may not seem remarkable, but it was.
Because Sungai had had no contact with a male Komodo dragon
for more than two years.
At first, keepers thought that she had stored sperm
from the male she had been kept with previously in France.
But genetic tests revealed that she had, in fact, fertilised her own eggs
and given birth without any male involvement.
This was an amazing discovery about Komodo dragons.
That they can breed by a process called parthenogenesis.
1t's a term derived from two Greek words, parthenos, meaning virgin,
and genesis, meaning birth.
1ncredibly, the dragon's remarkable reproductive abilities
went unnoticed until just a few years ago.
But the species itself had remained unknown well into the 20th century.
Then stories started to circulate in 1ndonesia
of a strange reptilian monster living on a tiny island
lying far to the east of Bali.
1t was said to be over six metres long
and strong enough to pull down a buffalo.
In 1 91 0, two Europeans, members of a Dutch pearling fleet
finally confirmed the existence of these great dragons on the island of Komodo.
Excited by this finding, photographs of the skin were sent to Major Ouwens,
director of the zoological museum on Java.
He was equally amazed and employed an experienced Indonesian collector
who captured two live adults and two youngsters for his zoo.
The land crocodile was identified as a huge and new species of monitor lizard.
He named it Varanus komodoensis.
The discovery of this living monster caused a flurry of excitement.
But World War 1 prevented further visits to the island.
And then, in 1 926, an expedition was launched
by an American called William Burden
to find out more.
His small team included his wife,
Dr Emmett Reid Dunn, a reptile expert,
and a newsreel cameraman from Pathe.
Their film of this giant island creature from a hidden world
caused great excitement worldwide.
Then, in 1 92 7, two living Komodo dragons were sent to Europe.
Although they clearly could be dangerous,
they proved to be more gentle and intelligent than expected.
But it would take 80 years before we fully understood the way they reproduce.
We know from other examples that the reproduction of reptiles
can be more varied than that of mammals.
1n crocodiles, the sex of the eggs is not genetically fixed,
but is controlled instead by temperature.
Those incubated at warm temperatures hatch as males
and those in cooler conditions as females.
But the sex of an unhatched Komodo dragon is determined in a different way.
The fact that Komodo dragon eggs can develop without fertilisation
was a surprising and exciting discovery.
But, interestingly, all the babies that hatched were males.
Why should that be?
Well, this is how it works.
A female Komodo dragon has two different sex chromosomes,
a W and a Z.
And the male has two similar chromosomes, a Z and a Z.
If there are no males, only the female, WZ pair, remain.
In such a case, the female divides her own egg cell into two halves.
One of which has a W chromosome, and the other a single Z.
They then duplicate themselves to form a WW and a ZZ.
In the Komodo dragon, a WW combination is not an operative pair.
So only the male ZZ will hatch.
Thus female Komodo dragons can produce their own males.
This seems almost unbelievable, but when you come to think about it,
it's a very useful ability for an animal that lives on a small island.
Komodo dragons are descended from lizard-like ancestors
that lived over 40 million years ago in Asia.
They migrated to Australia and later reached the islands of central 1ndonesia
either by swimming or by drifting across the ocean on floating vegetation.
Parthenogenesis would enable a single female arriving on an island
to start a breeding population all by herself.
Nobody knew that Komodo dragons could breed asexually
before lone females hatched fertile eggs in captivity.
In the wild, it's virtually impossible to know
if a female has mated with a male
and there are usually males around.
In most circumstances, sexual reproduction is preferable.
A mix of male and female genes can enable the repair of DNA
and prevent unwanted mutations.
Such genetic variation also helps animals
to adapt to changing environments.
So sexual reproduction
seems to make more biological sense than parthenogenesis.
And it should be rare in the wild, an extreme last resort.
Strangely, that's not always so.
1n 201 2, odd breeding behaviour was noticed in two species of snake,
copperheads and cottonmouths.
some females were reproducing by parthenogenesis
even though males were present.
These females were often small and overlooked by the males.
so, rather than not breed, they cloned themselves.
But this kind of breeding is potentially a genetic dead end.
1f individuals all have the same genes,
the species can't react to a changing world.
For whiptail lizards, which live in a harsh but very stable desert,
being genetically the same is actually an advantage.
For them, parthenogenesis is better than sexual reproduction,
as it prevents them from varying from their winning formula.
strangely, the females still go through the motions of mating.
This stimulates their hormones, but these lizards are taking a gamble.
1f their environment changes for the worse,
they'll be unable to adapt
and so they risk extinction.
Clearly the best survival technique is to be able to reproduce in either way.
Parthenogenesis has enabled isolated dwellers, like the Komodo dragon,
to survive by forming breeding populations from just a single female.
More recently, studies of wild Komodo dragons
have revealed that two-thirds of the population is male,
suggesting that, even when both sexes are present,
asexual breeding is still occurring.
So, Komodo dragons keep their breeding options flexible.
It's likely that many animals are breeding by parthenogenesis,
or have the potential to do so, but we just don't know about them.
Parthenogenesis has been occurring unnoticed for millions of years.
Here is a natural curiosity that's only just revealing its secrets.
Next, we meet a tiny animal that uses parthenogenesis
to be one of the fastest breeders in nature.
surprisingly, this lives in our own back gardens.
In summer, this is not an uncommon sight.
Thousands of aphids massed together on a stem.
At this time of the year,
each of them can produce five to ten youngsters in a day,
and each is a genetic copy of herself.
so vast numbers can suddenly appear within a day or so.
Birds and other insects arrive and prey on them,
but the aphids usually manage to keep ahead.
This astonishing ability attracted the attention of early scholars.
1n the mid-1 8th century, a new survey of insects was published in France.
1ts author, Rene-Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur,
expressed surprise that he'd never seen aphids mating.
Neither had he seen a male.
He made the revolutionary suggestion that they were reproducing without sex
and invited his readers to help him prove it.
1n the spring of 1 740, Charles Bonnet,
then a young law student from switzerland,
took up that challenge.
Charles Bonnet took a newborn female aphid from its mother
immediately after birth
and put it in an isolation chamber.
He placed the aphid on a leaf inside an upturned glass jar and,
using a magnifying glass, watched it from early morning
until night for 1 2 days.
On the evening of june the 1 st, 1 740 at 7:30 pm,
the female aphid gave birth to a brand-new baby aphid.
Then, over the next 2 1 days, she had 94 more female offspring.
Bonnet had no clue how this could happen, but he knew for sure
that the aphid had bred without any male contact.
He sent his findings to Reaumur in Paris,
who published this new and important discovery of sexless reproduction.
But how this parthenogenesis worked,
and why aphids use virgin birth in their lifecycles
was still a mystery.
And entomologists puzzled over it for many years.
In the 1 830s, an entomologist called Francis Walker
took a great interest in cataloguing various small insects, including aphids.
He made more than 1 3,000 slides.
Walker collected hundreds of aphids,
many from Southgate and the surrounding areas of London.
Here we can see some of them.
He made successive collections of the same species of aphid
from the same locality
across all the seasons.
As a result, he found several different forms of each aphid
throughout the breeding cycle.
They varied in size and some were wingless.
That suggested that female aphids had a rather extraordinary lifecycle.
1t was clear from Walker's study that nearly all individual aphids are female.
But they change in form over the seasons.
1n early spring, when plants are growing, most are without wings.
With plenty of food on offer, they have no need to fly.
Later in the season, when overcrowding becomes an issue,
females are born with wings so that they can travel to find new food.
Aphids seem to be able to produce females
that can exploit every situation.
Although Walker was prolific, he wasn't always entirely accurate.
He recorded many aspects of the aphids' lifecycles,
but he didn't piece them together to produce the complete picture.
And then aphid research was taken up
by another entomologist called George Buckton.
He chronicled every detail of the complex aphid lifecycle.
In 1 893, George Buckton published a Monograph of British Aphides
in four volumes.
He wanted to share his passion for these tiny insects in books
that he hoped would not be too dry academically.
Buckton corresponded with many leading naturalists of his day
to pull together every possible specimen and record of behaviour.
He was an accomplished artist
and produced beautiful, accurate drawings from live specimens.
And they interestingly show a distinct absence of male aphids.
''The sexual forms of aphides,'' he wrote, ''are in many species, very rarely met.''
Buckton's drawings confirm that aphid populations are commonly all female
and that males have been almost entirely eliminated from the species.
For most of the breeding season, females only give birth to daughters.
They don't waste time producing males,
which can't by themselves produce offspring.
so, do aphids need males at all?
The lifecycle of another insect would seem to suggest not.
This wonderful creature is a Phyllium giganteum,
a giant leaf insect.
It's the largest species of its group and it lives wild in Malaysia.
Nearly all individuals are female.
In fact, a male of this species wasn't discovered until 1 994.
They're extremely rare.
The species for the most part reproduces itself by parthenogenesis.
They lay unfertilised eggs that hatch into more females.
And this method of reproduction
has enabled it to extend its range dramatically.
Much like a single female Komodo dragon arriving on an island,
a lone female stick insect can start a breeding colony in a new area
even if males never arrive.
And that's what happened in southern England in 1 903
when a different species of stick insect
arrived on vegetation imported from New Zealand.
Now, all female populations survive
thousands of miles away from their native home.
These populations have no males and don't appear to need them.
The females produce fertile eggs that survive the cold winters
and new females hatch out in the spring.
But, without males, the population could become dangerously inbred.
Aphid populations face the same problems.
But most species have a twist in their lifecycle
that freshens up their gene pool.
In the autumn, the aphid production line
switches from producing just asexual females
to producing sexual males and sexual females.
At the end of the season,
as the food supply wanes and the temperature drops,
there's a phase of sexual reproduction that produces eggs.
These eggs will over winter
to produce next spring's new aphid generation.
Aphids don't produce their eggs until the autumn.
However, most populations survive until then
because, in many cases, they form a relationship with another insect, ants.
An aphid feeds by piercing the stems of plants and drinking the sugary sap.
But sap contains far more sugar than the aphids can use,
so they excrete the excess as honeydew.
This is perfect food for the ants
and they keenly farm the aphids to harvest the rich liquid.
And in return, the ants protect the aphids
from insects that try to prey on them.
so, with ants guarding them,
the aphids have a good chance of surviving until the end of the year,
when they produce their eggs.
1n spring, new females will emerge from the eggs
and start once more to produce new versions of themselves,
over and over again.
And aphids have a final, almost unbelievable, twist in their lifecycles
that greatly speeds up their breeding.
They do something truly astounding.
Even before they're born, they have embryos developing inside their bodies.
Parthenogenesis combined with this telescoping of generations
give aphids an extremely rapid turnover of generations.
Like tiny Russian dolls,
they just keep popping out smaller copies of themselves.
A newly-born summer aphid has, inside her body, her own developing daughters,
who in turn contain her fully-formed unborn granddaughters.
so several generations of aphid overlap in time and space
and, in one season, a single female can produce
thousand upon thousand of cloned females.
Aphids' lives are varied, often complicated and truly amazing.
They can change plant host,
change their form, and alter their method of reproduction.
1n the spring, females hatch from eggs
and produce several generation of wingless females.
Their numbers grow and they produce winged females,
that can fly to new food and rapidly produce even more females.
1n the autumn, the sexual forms of both males and females appear,
which mate and lay eggs, which then can survive the winter.
The ability to breed by parthenogenesis seems almost magical to us,
but in nature virgin birth is not uncommon.
Having the ability to produce daughter clones or more males
can save a species or create a new one.
Flexible ways of breeding have allowed creatures to colonise new areas
and survive in small communities, like those on islands.
The Komodo dragon has certainly survived for many centuries
and aphids have been around for over 200 million years.
So parthenogenesis is a breeding strategy that is a real life saver.