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Something strange is happening
in the forests of Africa.
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Chimpanzees are doing things no
one has seen them do before:
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they're in a partying mood.
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But that's not all.
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At a site called Fongoli,
in Senegal,
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they have also invented a remarkable
way of catching a meal.
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They are making spears and hunting,
just like our ancestors.
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Are these apes developing human-like
skills in their own environment?
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After all, the great apes-
chimpanzees, orangutans,
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gorillas, and bonobos-
seem so much like us,
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it's hard not to feel
a deep connection.
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We have come to see that we're much more
similar to them than we ever imagined.
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But for every revelation about
the power of their minds,
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another shows up a
stunning difference.
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If you think that human genetics and ape
genetics are 99 percent the same,
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what we've managed to achieve
in our current position on Earth
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is so strikingly different
from that of apes.
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We're trying to figure out,
"What is it that makes us human?
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What's the little difference that
makes the big difference?"
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How big is the gap
between them and us?
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What's holding them back?
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In a remote part of Africa, there's
something new under the sun.
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Our closest living relatives
are getting bold.
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Chimps are supposed
to be afraid of water,
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but this young male is
climbing down for a dip.
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He keeps a hand on a natural safety
line as he overcomes his fear.
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Has a boy or girl ever had so much
fun in a swimming hole?
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Wild chimps have never before
been seen playing like this.
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At Fongoli, Senegal, anthropologist Jill
Pruetz and psychologist Andrew Whiten
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are getting an extraordinary
glimpse of chimp emotions.
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The personality of a chimpanzee
is extremely excitable.
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I've hardly ever seen a
facial expression like that.
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I mean, that was extreme excitement to
the stage of kind of losing control.
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It's not merely just to cool off.
The juveniles have fun.
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I mean, they play in the water.
They play a lot in the water.
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This is only one of a rush of discoveries
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that is painting a surprising
picture of ape minds.
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They are more like us than most
researchers ever imagined.
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One by one, the skills and emotions we
once thought were uniquely human
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are being found in apes.
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Still, specific mental gaps-
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the little differences that
make the big difference-
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will ultimately explain why we study
them and not the other way around.
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While the swimming hole is revealing
chimps' emotions in the field,
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a new laboratory study is showing off
their amazing rational powers.
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At the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary
Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany,
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psychologist Josep Call places
a peanut inside a clear tube.
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How can the chimpanzee get the snack?
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She has never seen this puzzle before.
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For 10 minutes, there is
no solution in sight.
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And all of a sudden, boom,
they solve it.
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They have to understand that they
can use the water as a tool.
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This is interesting, because the water
itself, it doesn't have any shape.
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Using water as a tool seems like something
we would do... on a good day.
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Another tool is being put to remarkable use
by wild chimps in their quest for a meal.
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Back in Senegal, Jill Pruetz has been keeping
a close eye on chimps' eating habits.
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Throughout Africa, chimps
eat almost anything,
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and they have a
particular taste for meat.
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Here, their favorite prey is the bush
baby, a small nocturnal primate.
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But these chimps aren't catching
bush babies barehanded.
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Pruetz has seen chimps making
spears and using them to hunt.
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Andrew Whiten hopes to
join the ranks of the few
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who have witnessed this
extraordinary behavior.
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To make a spear, a chimp starts by breaking
off a branch, then sharpening the tip.
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All on the quest to capture
a bush baby
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in its day time sleeping hollow.
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So the next step would be that
the chimp would approach the cavity
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and sometimes look in,
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take the tool,
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jab forcefully into the
cavity, multiple times.
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It may not be ice-pick-sharp,
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but when driven by an arm up to five
times as strong as a human's,
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it's a potentially lethal weapon.
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They always either sniff it or lick it
when they withdraw the tool.
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What they may do is actually break
open the entire cavity,
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and if they're lucky,
find a bush baby inside.
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Break, strip, sharpen, stab:
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these chimps take a series of distinct
steps in a carefully premeditated hunt.
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Pruetz and Whiten are
closing in on the answers.
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Most of the 20 spear hunts
observed by Pruetz
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have taken place during
the rainy season.
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Over time she has seen
every stage of the kill.
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A chimp is inspecting a hollow,
looking for a bush baby.
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She breaks off a branch
and makes a spear.
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The first time I saw a chimp make a tool,
I think I said something like,
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"Where is she going, and what is
she going to do with that tool?"
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She nibbles the tip to sharpen it.
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Then, with the aid of her foot,
she aims the point into a hollow.
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Pruetz has made a landmark discovery.
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Never before has any
non-human species
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been known to routinely make
and use deadly weapons.
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So what does spear-hunting reveal
about how chimpanzees think?
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Pruetz and her team have seen about half
the chimps here brandishing weapons,
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which means spear hunting has
spread through much of the group.
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That seems natural to us.
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But generating ideas and
sharing technologies
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is one scientific
definition of culture.
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For Whiten, culture includes the human
arts from beer to Beethoven,
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but it also covers the rudimentary
traditions of ape societies.
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Whiten is trying to discover what kind
of mind can lead an ape to culture.
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Young watch their parents,
sometimes very intently.
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And over the following months and years,
they acquire that behavior.
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So you have to be able to copy.
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To prove that one ape can copy another,
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a student of Andrew Whiten's
devised an experiment.
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At the University of Texas,
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Antoine Spiteri has built a kind
of slot machine for apes.
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He loads it with a grape.
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To get the fruit,
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a chimp must first turn a disk to allow
the grape to drop through a hole.
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Next, a chimp must move a door that
opens a handle to release the fruit pay-out.
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Spiteri now trains a chimp named
Judy how to work the device.
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On her own, she'd never work it out,
but thanks to a sweet liquid reward,
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she learns the sequence is
two steps:
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rotate,
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then push.
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Next, Judy's group mates enter.
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Spiteri wants to know if,
just by watching,
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the spectators
will learn the technique.
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Can these apes ape to win
this food-finding game?
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One chimp seems to think she's got
it and shoves Judy aside.
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A minute ago, Judy was the only
one with the knowledge.
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Now another has it, and, quickly, the trick
spreads throughout the group.
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But for Spiteri, the most important
question remains.
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Have the next door neighbours
also learned the solution?
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They have no social ties
to the original group.
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In fact, they are hostile towards them.
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Would they set that aside to keep
up with the Joneses next door?
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In no time at all, they're working
the slot machine like old pros.
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Rotating,
then pushing the handle.
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Learning by imitation is an
essential skill for culture.
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And culture, along with the complex
thoughts and emotions behind it,
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was long believed
to be uniquely human.
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The history of Western thought has
always been premised on the idea
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that there are beasts
and there are humans;
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and humans are touched by the spark
of God, and beasts are just beasts.
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Something of a revolution came in 1960,
when a young researcher,
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with support from the National Geographic
Society, set up camp in Tanzania.
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Jane Goodall observed that chimps'
emotions seemed much like our own,
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especially the tenacious bond
between mother and baby.
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At a site in Western Africa,
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Japanese researchers reported the
story of an ill two-year-old chimp.
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Her mother touches her forehead
as if to check for a fever.
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As the baby's strength ebbs
her mother remains devoted.
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When I see the scene of the
mother looking at the baby,
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I really recognize the emotional life of
chimpanzees are so similar to us.
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For weeks after the baby's death,
the mother carries her baby's body.
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Is the mother grieving?
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Can an ape be in denial?
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It's impossible to say exactly
what the mother is thinking,
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but hard to dismiss her feelings.
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Putting ape emotions on the map was just
one of Goodall's accomplishments.
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She also found powerful
evidence of their intelligence.
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Goodall was the first to report
chimps making and using tools-
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in this case to "fish" for termites.
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When she found termite-fishing,
people were so surprised,
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and thought we should change
the definition of humans,
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or we should include
chimpanzee as humans.
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What Goodall couldn't have known was
that at a place called Goualougo,
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other chimps had an even more
sophisticated way to catch termites.
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First they use a big stick like a
shovel to open the ground,
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then they switch to a slender
probe to pull up the insects.
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Perhaps Goodall's most astonishing
discovery was that chimps are hunters.
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She watched a troop catching
colobus monkeys by hand.
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Although no one has established that
they coordinate their efforts,
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the chimps appear to be cooperating.
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And cooperation is, after all, one of the
key drivers of human culture.
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Could apes speed up their culture
by working together?
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Imagine a group of chimps, armed and
dangerous, hunting as a band.
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So why isn't the Earth
the Planet of the Apes?
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Do apes even have the
capacity to cooperate?
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A series of new studies reveals the
rudiments of teamwork in the great apes.
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But they still come up short.
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In an experiment at the Great Ape
Research Institute in Japan,
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a chimp knows that food is
hidden under a stone.
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Researchers replace it
with a heavier stone.
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If two chimps each know about the food,
can they work together?
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In repeated trials, no pair of chimps has
ever cooperated to synchronize their pulling.
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If one chimp is replaced with a person
the other animal still doesn't collaborate,
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at first.
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But, eventually, it figures out the
sweet rewards of cooperation.
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Ultimately, the chimp learns
to ask for a helping hand.
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A needy chimp may well recruit
help from a human,
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but will it ever offer assistance?
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One of the most surprising findings of all
of my years of studying apes
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has been that they will
actually help humans.
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If you're reaching for an
out-of-reach object,
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if they understand what your goal is,
then they will help you.
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Of course if you've dropped your banana,
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you can forget it,
you won't be getting it back.
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Chimps can understand
what someone else wants.
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One study shows that they can even
interpret another's actions as good or bad.
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In Leipzig, Germany, a chimpanzee
is about to receive a tray of food.
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At the same time he's given
a rope under the platform,
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he can pull at anytime to collapse
the platform and end the experiment.
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Another chimp now enters the cage.
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This chimp is free to pull a second
rope on top of the tray.
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The first chimp is ticked off.
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He pulls the hidden rope,
and the game is over.
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Was he just generally outraged?
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00:20:33,790 --> 00:20:36,129
Or taking specific
revenge on the thief?
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To find out, it is the researcher
that now moves the food.
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Once again the first chimp has
lost his meal to the second.
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All that has changed is
who is responsible.
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In trials where the researcher
moves the food,
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the first chimp is much less likely
to crash the platform.
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That would punish an innocent chimp.
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So chimps have a sense of justice,
and they can cooperate with people.
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Can they collaborate
spontaneously with each other?
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Researchers placed fruit on a board
just out of a chimpanzee's reach.
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The chimps are behind bars
to keep them from the food,
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and because they can be impulsive,
strong and dangerous.
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When a solo chimp can reach both ends of a
rope, it hauls them in and gets all the food.
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00:21:41,973 --> 00:21:45,177
But on some trials the
ends are too far apart.
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If the chimp pulls just one end,
the rope unthreads.
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The chimp has another option.
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He can unlock a door to bring in
a helper who's been watching.
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The two chimps now work together.
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00:22:08,842 --> 00:22:12,641
But a series of trials shows that this
teamwork doesn't come easily.
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The helper must be a friend, and the
food divided into separate dishes.
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Can a more loving ape cooperate better?
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00:22:31,584 --> 00:22:34,149
At Lola Ya Bonobo
Sanctuary in the Congo,
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00:22:34,401 --> 00:22:37,543
victims of the pet trade are
raised by human mothers.
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When these bonobos grow up,
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they will spend their days outdoors,
becoming savvy about life in the forest.
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Bonobos are the most social
of the great apes.
227
00:22:50,489 --> 00:22:53,981
And in their groups, all friends
are "friends with benefits,"
228
00:22:54,370 --> 00:22:56,502
a simple way to diffuse tension.
229
00:22:59,026 --> 00:23:03,136
Calmer than chimps, how do bonobos
fare on the cooperation test?
230
00:23:04,808 --> 00:23:07,265
Food is placed in
a central shared well.
231
00:23:08,293 --> 00:23:11,391
Ok, are you ready?
One, two, three!
232
00:23:11,391 --> 00:23:15,460
All the food is in the same dish,
so it's very easy for one individual
233
00:23:15,660 --> 00:23:18,931
to bump the other individual out
of the way and steal it all.
234
00:23:26,598 --> 00:23:29,306
It takes the bonobos a
while to get on task.
235
00:23:34,073 --> 00:23:36,222
But soon they get the hang of it.
236
00:23:40,165 --> 00:23:45,339
Yay, bonobos! Yay!
237
00:23:49,280 --> 00:23:53,940
With their more congenial temperaments,
bonobos are more cooperative than chimps are.
238
00:23:59,321 --> 00:24:02,756
In fact, bonobos may take
cooperation even further.
239
00:24:04,444 --> 00:24:09,109
When a young male died at Lola Ya Bonobo,
workers were trying to remove his body.
240
00:24:12,156 --> 00:24:17,137
The staff decided to use sticks and try
to move the bonobo towards a door.
241
00:24:19,153 --> 00:24:22,652
They mounted an incredible
defense of this body
242
00:24:22,752 --> 00:24:25,363
that surprised everybody
and was extremely moving.
243
00:24:31,938 --> 00:24:34,717
That's a fascinating reaction
on the part of the bonobos.
244
00:24:35,852 --> 00:24:38,032
They were not related
to that individual,
245
00:24:39,225 --> 00:24:43,350
and yet, they took extreme
risks to protect his body.
246
00:24:45,574 --> 00:24:49,478
As they fend off the humans,
it seems as if they're cooperating.
247
00:24:50,195 --> 00:24:52,259
But what does it take to work together?
248
00:24:52,876 --> 00:24:55,895
Are they comparing the number
of staff to their own troops?
249
00:24:56,536 --> 00:24:58,174
Can they calculate at all?
250
00:25:10,121 --> 00:25:14,168
At Kyoto University,
Tetsuro Matsuzawa's experiments
251
00:25:14,381 --> 00:25:18,721
are revealing that chimps can in fact
develop an astonishing facility for numbers.
252
00:25:19,582 --> 00:25:22,103
He first trained a
chimpanzee named Ai
253
00:25:22,303 --> 00:25:25,095
to touch the numeral that
matched the number of dots.
254
00:25:27,324 --> 00:25:29,528
Once Ai knew zero through nine,
255
00:25:29,828 --> 00:25:33,652
Matsuzawa displayed the numbers
helter-skeltered on a screen.
256
00:25:36,231 --> 00:25:39,639
Ai quickly learned to touch
them in ascending order.
257
00:25:51,063 --> 00:25:54,823
In the final test, as soon as Ai
touches the numeral one,
258
00:25:55,123 --> 00:25:57,803
white squares cover up
the remaining numbers.
259
00:26:09,603 --> 00:26:13,690
Can the chimp possibly remember all the
numbers and their locations
260
00:26:13,890 --> 00:26:15,447
and touch them in order?
261
00:26:16,007 --> 00:26:18,250
The performance was really amazing.
262
00:26:18,903 --> 00:26:22,172
Much, much better than
we had expected.
263
00:26:23,283 --> 00:26:26,393
But for Ai, learning numbers
was a struggle.
264
00:26:28,227 --> 00:26:33,003
Almost the same amount of training
was necessary to teach three,
265
00:26:34,335 --> 00:26:36,833
teach four or teach five.
266
00:26:37,033 --> 00:26:43,406
Or, even worse, it takes more time
to teach five and then six.
267
00:26:46,332 --> 00:26:48,727
Ai never got the feeling
that children get
268
00:26:48,927 --> 00:26:52,547
when they realize you just add
one to get to the next number.
269
00:26:55,474 --> 00:26:59,759
In the United States, another ape shows
a surprising gift for language.
270
00:27:01,047 --> 00:27:02,730
Going to go help get some sticks?
271
00:27:05,284 --> 00:27:05,794
Good.
272
00:27:08,363 --> 00:27:12,339
A bonobo named Kanzi, now at
the Great Ape Trust in Iowa,
273
00:27:12,539 --> 00:27:15,120
picked up English without
being directly taught.
274
00:27:17,880 --> 00:27:21,079
Put the keys in the refrigerator.
275
00:27:22,018 --> 00:27:24,549
Wearing a mask to avoid cueing Kanzi,
276
00:27:24,749 --> 00:27:27,959
researcher Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
tests his comprehension.
277
00:27:28,059 --> 00:27:29,276
Good job!
278
00:27:29,276 --> 00:27:31,821
Go get the ball that's outdoors.
279
00:27:44,554 --> 00:27:46,720
Very nice. Thank you, Kanzi.
280
00:27:47,186 --> 00:27:52,221
Savage-Rumbaugh measures Kanzi's
vocabulary at 3,000 spoken English words.
281
00:27:55,388 --> 00:27:57,585
While apes can master
words and numbers,
282
00:27:57,785 --> 00:28:01,764
other research shows that something else
is limiting their cooperation:
283
00:28:02,619 --> 00:28:08,937
apes have emotional issues
-rivalry, violence-
284
00:28:11,357 --> 00:28:14,968
and most of all, they're impulsive.
285
00:28:19,312 --> 00:28:22,617
In a celebrated study that
investigated impulse control,
286
00:28:22,817 --> 00:28:28,828
Sally Boysen of Ohio State University asked
chimps to choose between two dishes of sweets.
287
00:28:28,912 --> 00:28:30,324
Now, you watch real carefully.
288
00:28:31,102 --> 00:28:35,487
We're going to put one, two,
three, four down here.
289
00:28:36,201 --> 00:28:37,895
Are you watching, Miss Priss?
290
00:28:38,300 --> 00:28:39,112
Sheeby?
291
00:28:39,167 --> 00:28:40,444
And we're going to put two in here.
292
00:28:40,644 --> 00:28:42,444
Give those to Sarah. Okay.
293
00:28:42,544 --> 00:28:45,191
Well, I have to give these to Sarah,
and Sheeba gets two.
294
00:28:45,191 --> 00:28:48,543
So Sarah gets four and
Sheeba only gets two.
295
00:28:48,643 --> 00:28:52,153
Aw, too bad.
296
00:28:52,353 --> 00:28:56,460
The twist was that the chimp got
the sweets that she didn't point to.
297
00:28:58,088 --> 00:29:01,346
Could she learn to resist her
impulse to reach for the bigger pile?
298
00:29:01,406 --> 00:29:02,304
You want Sarah to have these?
299
00:29:02,304 --> 00:29:04,924
It's okay, it's okay.
You get to have that one.
300
00:29:05,024 --> 00:29:09,280
Yeah, Sarah gets five,
and Sheba gets one.
301
00:29:09,480 --> 00:29:10,740
Oh, that is such a shame.
302
00:29:11,495 --> 00:29:15,588
Amazingly, in the study chimps never
overcame their greedy urges.
303
00:29:16,256 --> 00:29:20,311
They always reached for more and,
so, ended up with less.
304
00:29:22,823 --> 00:29:25,839
Impulse studies have also
been run on humans.
305
00:29:26,986 --> 00:29:29,534
In a classic experiment
of the 1970s,
306
00:29:29,734 --> 00:29:32,502
a researcher gives a
four-year-old a simple choice.
307
00:29:32,560 --> 00:29:33,919
So, if you wait for me to get back,
308
00:29:33,919 --> 00:29:37,216
I'll give you this bowl with all of
these gummy bears, okay?
309
00:29:37,591 --> 00:29:40,470
But if you can't wait, you can
push that button, like this,
310
00:29:41,492 --> 00:29:45,829
and then I'll come back and you can have this
bowl with just this one gummy bear, ok?
311
00:29:46,922 --> 00:29:48,769
Okay, I'll be right back.
312
00:31:03,163 --> 00:31:05,900
According to an inconclusive
but intriguing study,
313
00:31:06,100 --> 00:31:08,540
the longer children
resisted temptation,
314
00:31:08,740 --> 00:31:12,078
the higher their school test
results would be years later.
315
00:31:16,202 --> 00:31:19,271
In any case, the differences
between people are small
316
00:31:19,471 --> 00:31:22,002
compared to the gap
separating humans and apes.
317
00:31:24,505 --> 00:31:27,375
Maybe one of the first things that
happened during our species evolution
318
00:31:27,575 --> 00:31:30,403
is we became much less
emotionally reactive.
319
00:31:31,096 --> 00:31:33,400
And maybe that's one of
the big differences
320
00:31:33,600 --> 00:31:36,977
that may explain why we solve
problems so differently.
321
00:31:37,277 --> 00:31:40,322
We sort of got control of our emotions.
322
00:31:41,653 --> 00:31:45,018
Can apes be given skills to help
them master their emotions?
323
00:31:45,319 --> 00:31:46,419
Now you watch real carefully.
324
00:31:47,158 --> 00:31:50,110
Sally Boysen trained a chimp
to understand numerals.
325
00:31:52,833 --> 00:31:55,423
She then repeated the experiment
with the sweets,
326
00:31:55,523 --> 00:31:58,942
but offered different pairs of
numerals rather than treats.
327
00:31:59,002 --> 00:32:00,869
You want to give two to Sarah? Ok.
328
00:32:00,969 --> 00:32:04,142
Two goes to Sarah, and you get six.
329
00:32:04,430 --> 00:32:08,214
Remarkably, chimps were now able to
learn what they couldn't before:
330
00:32:08,514 --> 00:32:12,001
point in to the smaller number
to get the bigger prize.
331
00:32:14,128 --> 00:32:15,886
Symbols can make you free.
332
00:32:16,847 --> 00:32:19,510
They can help distance an
ape from its impulses.
333
00:32:20,170 --> 00:32:23,723
But outside of the lab,
apes don't seem to use symbols.
334
00:32:26,471 --> 00:32:31,016
Still, ape minds seem to share many of the
amazing features of the human mind.
335
00:32:31,707 --> 00:32:34,290
They have sophisticated
social emotions.
336
00:32:34,665 --> 00:32:35,934
They can cooperate.
337
00:32:37,865 --> 00:32:39,130
They have culture.
338
00:32:40,355 --> 00:32:41,051
Five.
339
00:32:41,091 --> 00:32:41,960
Four.
340
00:32:42,160 --> 00:32:43,149
Three.
341
00:32:43,249 --> 00:32:44,145
Two.
342
00:32:44,387 --> 00:32:45,272
One.
343
00:32:46,843 --> 00:32:49,415
Their mental rocket is
on the launch pad.
344
00:32:50,255 --> 00:32:51,834
Why isn't it taking off?
345
00:32:56,072 --> 00:32:59,813
On an average day, human beings
file thousands of patents,
346
00:33:00,135 --> 00:33:02,664
post tens of thousands
messages over the Internet,
347
00:33:02,925 --> 00:33:06,346
and think millions of thoughts that have
never been thought before.
348
00:33:08,863 --> 00:33:11,183
Our closest relatives are different.
349
00:33:11,318 --> 00:33:14,998
On a good day, an ape is lucky
to use a tool to crack a nut.
350
00:33:17,331 --> 00:33:21,338
What prevents ape culture from
igniting like the human version?
351
00:33:29,485 --> 00:33:34,501
Recent studies that compare the human and
ape mind are revealing something surprising.
352
00:33:40,354 --> 00:33:43,638
Bonobos like Kanzi show
their own kind of genius.
353
00:33:43,701 --> 00:33:45,888
Kanzi, could you take off Sue's shoe?
354
00:33:45,900 --> 00:33:48,119
Could you take my shoe off, please?
355
00:33:51,902 --> 00:33:53,370
You might need to untie it.
356
00:33:54,207 --> 00:33:56,515
Even skeptics agree that Kanzi
357
00:33:56,615 --> 00:33:59,753
understands more words than
any other non-human animal.
358
00:34:01,239 --> 00:34:04,660
He also uses an array of visual
symbols to communicate.
359
00:34:05,543 --> 00:34:10,923
But on closer inspection, Kanzi, like all
great apes, lacks the full mental package.
360
00:34:12,418 --> 00:34:14,308
Take Kanzi's use of language.
361
00:34:14,412 --> 00:34:17,689
Most of the time, he will use these
symbols to request things,
362
00:34:18,246 --> 00:34:20,489
to say "Take me there,"
or "Give me that."
363
00:34:20,887 --> 00:34:24,727
- M'nMs.
- You like M'nMs? Ok.
364
00:34:24,960 --> 00:34:28,026
Now, Kanzi will not use those symbols
to talk about the weather
365
00:34:28,226 --> 00:34:32,176
or to just make small talk,
which is a very human thing.
366
00:34:37,054 --> 00:34:39,604
When human infants
communicate with others,
367
00:34:39,804 --> 00:34:43,105
they engage in a real conversation
where each conversational turn
368
00:34:43,205 --> 00:34:46,174
is responsive to the turn
that came before.
369
00:34:46,374 --> 00:34:48,645
And they even ask for
clarification if they need.
370
00:34:48,745 --> 00:34:51,146
So you say "Huh?" or you say "Yeah,"
371
00:34:51,346 --> 00:34:55,153
and you let the other one know
how the communication is going.
372
00:34:57,325 --> 00:34:59,239
To engage in a real conversation,
373
00:34:59,439 --> 00:35:02,322
each speaker needs a sense of
what the other is thinking.
374
00:35:02,761 --> 00:35:04,574
Call this skill mind-reading.
375
00:35:05,437 --> 00:35:07,470
Young children have not
fully developed it.
376
00:35:09,027 --> 00:35:10,906
Hey, so Zoe, guess what
we're going to do today?
377
00:35:11,106 --> 00:35:13,398
We're going to play a game
with my Princess Sally here.
378
00:35:13,598 --> 00:35:17,463
See, this is Princess Sally.
And she's got a ball that she really likes.
379
00:35:17,663 --> 00:35:18,520
This is her ball.
380
00:35:18,795 --> 00:35:20,506
But she needs to go
away for a little bit,
381
00:35:20,506 --> 00:35:24,293
so Princess Sally is going to hide her
ball right over here in the bag.
382
00:35:24,593 --> 00:35:29,044
See Princess Sally hiding her ball right
over there in the purple bag? Yeah?
383
00:35:29,410 --> 00:35:32,270
So here she goes. She's going to
go away for just a little bit.
384
00:35:33,571 --> 00:35:38,157
Now while Princess Sally is away, we're
going to play a little trick on her, okay?
385
00:35:38,459 --> 00:35:45,115
We're going to move her ball from the
purple bag over here to the green bag.
386
00:35:45,368 --> 00:35:47,509
See how we moved the ball over there?
387
00:35:48,003 --> 00:35:50,773
Okay, so guess what?
Princess Sally is coming back.
388
00:35:51,770 --> 00:35:53,253
Here she is. She came back.
389
00:35:53,711 --> 00:35:57,835
Can you tell me, where is Princess Sally
going to first look for her ball?
390
00:35:58,714 --> 00:36:00,583
Over here in the green bag?
391
00:36:00,687 --> 00:36:03,086
Can you tell me,
why is Princess Sally...
392
00:36:03,190 --> 00:36:06,612
Three-year-olds make consistent
mistakes about what others know.
393
00:36:08,224 --> 00:36:09,718
The thing that's amazing
about three-year-olds
394
00:36:09,718 --> 00:36:12,278
is how convinced they are
about their wrong answer.
395
00:36:12,411 --> 00:36:16,452
They're so sure that she's going to
look for her ball where it really is
396
00:36:16,467 --> 00:36:18,285
because she wants it
and that's where it is.
397
00:36:18,990 --> 00:36:22,584
But by the age of four, most children are
accomplished mind-readers.
398
00:36:23,406 --> 00:36:25,780
Where is Sally first going
to look for her ball?
399
00:36:27,078 --> 00:36:31,764
She's going to look in the purple bag,
so she can find her ball.
400
00:36:31,864 --> 00:36:35,690
She's going to look in the purple bag
so she can find her ball.
401
00:36:37,161 --> 00:36:40,372
As recently as 2001,
studies seemed to show
402
00:36:40,472 --> 00:36:42,499
that apes don't know what
others are thinking.
403
00:36:44,690 --> 00:36:48,267
But then new experiments began
to reveal unexpected skills.
404
00:36:49,985 --> 00:36:54,901
In one study, as a chimp approaches a treat,
Brian Hare moved it out of reach,
405
00:36:55,357 --> 00:36:57,688
establishing himself as a competitor.
406
00:37:02,139 --> 00:37:07,238
Next Hare blocks his own view of one
treats but leaves another within his sight.
407
00:37:10,045 --> 00:37:13,014
It looks like they're generating a
plan and saying to themselves,
408
00:37:13,014 --> 00:37:18,105
"Ok, I want that food, and the one I'm most
likely to get is the one he's not looking at,
409
00:37:18,205 --> 00:37:22,531
or the one that, if I sneak
around, he won't see me,
410
00:37:22,631 --> 00:37:24,841
and therefore I can have
my yummy banana treat."
411
00:37:27,082 --> 00:37:29,514
This chimp seems to know
what's on Hare's mind,
412
00:37:29,948 --> 00:37:31,922
what he can see and what he can't.
413
00:37:34,434 --> 00:37:37,764
So chimps seem to share some of
our skills of mind-reading.
414
00:37:38,893 --> 00:37:42,340
Do we have any mental skills
which are uniquely our own?
415
00:37:46,880 --> 00:37:49,771
A key clue comes from a new experiment.
416
00:37:52,381 --> 00:37:53,961
Back at the University of Texas,
417
00:37:54,167 --> 00:37:58,721
Victoria Horner shows a chimp how to
operate a puzzle box to get a treat.
418
00:38:02,101 --> 00:38:03,426
First, she taps.
419
00:38:05,001 --> 00:38:06,656
Then she slots.
420
00:38:13,921 --> 00:38:15,580
Next she pokes.
421
00:38:48,133 --> 00:38:51,273
The chimp copies fairly
well and gets the sweet.
422
00:38:52,985 --> 00:38:56,467
This game we're going to play is about
this special box I brought, alright?
423
00:39:07,053 --> 00:39:09,137
There's a gummy bear. It's your turn.
424
00:39:18,164 --> 00:39:20,822
Children copy the actions,
much as the chimps did.
425
00:39:25,774 --> 00:39:27,664
Look, you got him. Alright!
426
00:39:27,664 --> 00:39:30,212
There's the gummy bear. Good job.
427
00:39:31,377 --> 00:39:34,240
The second box that I show
the chimpanzees is this one,
428
00:39:34,540 --> 00:39:37,130
and it's identical to the opaque box
429
00:39:37,230 --> 00:39:39,929
except that it's made out of
material which is see-through.
430
00:39:40,747 --> 00:39:44,355
Only now is it obvious that the
tapping and poking don't achieve a thing:
431
00:39:44,651 --> 00:39:46,647
the box has a false ceiling.
432
00:39:54,094 --> 00:39:55,554
The chimps cut to the chase.
433
00:39:56,123 --> 00:39:57,876
They skip the needless steps.
434
00:39:58,356 --> 00:40:00,604
For the apes it's all about the treat.
435
00:40:01,866 --> 00:40:06,749
What this study shows is that
apes don't just mindlessly ape.
436
00:40:07,358 --> 00:40:11,406
They also understand something
more about cause and effect.
437
00:40:22,850 --> 00:40:24,925
We found something quite surprising.
438
00:40:29,364 --> 00:40:31,173
The children were pre-disposed to copy,
439
00:40:31,997 --> 00:40:34,817
even when it meant that they were doing
something that was really rather silly.
440
00:40:35,363 --> 00:40:40,476
So this seems a little like the chimps are
outsmarting the kids in this particular study.
441
00:40:41,065 --> 00:40:43,075
There he is. You got him out.
442
00:40:44,245 --> 00:40:46,627
Why do children imitate slavishly?
443
00:40:49,162 --> 00:40:53,382
At the root of the children's behavior is
the fact that they viewed me as a grownup,
444
00:40:54,956 --> 00:40:56,261
possibly as a teacher.
445
00:40:57,502 --> 00:41:00,646
That children expect to be
taught is a vital difference.
446
00:41:01,266 --> 00:41:06,329
While apes can copy, most researchers
believe they don't teach each other.
447
00:41:09,412 --> 00:41:13,217
Learning from someone else is the
fastest way to get a new idea:
448
00:41:15,835 --> 00:41:17,713
faster than learning by imitation,
449
00:41:20,641 --> 00:41:23,711
faster than inventing a new
technology in the first place.
450
00:41:25,947 --> 00:41:30,628
In children, a penchant for teaching appears
-even before language kicks in-
451
00:41:30,809 --> 00:41:35,124
in the form of a deceptively
simple gesture: pointing.
452
00:41:39,061 --> 00:41:43,795
A toddler knows that the cup being
pointed to is the one that hides a treat.
453
00:41:45,309 --> 00:41:47,491
Parents love it when their
kids start pointing
454
00:41:47,591 --> 00:41:50,274
because it's evidence that the kid's
trying to communicate with them.
455
00:41:51,006 --> 00:41:53,698
Parents definitely notice
the difference between
456
00:41:53,798 --> 00:41:58,133
babies who just point to ask for things
and babies who point to show them things.
457
00:41:59,335 --> 00:42:01,570
Apes don't seem to get
that kind of pointing.
458
00:42:02,905 --> 00:42:05,019
It doesn't matter whether
Brian Hare points
459
00:42:08,075 --> 00:42:10,641
or stares or orients his body,
460
00:42:11,340 --> 00:42:14,897
this young bonobo is unaware that
he is trying to communicate.
461
00:42:15,016 --> 00:42:17,412
They were clueless at
using the information.
462
00:42:17,512 --> 00:42:21,308
Even after lots and lots of trials, they
didn't use the information I provided them.
463
00:42:21,408 --> 00:42:23,052
And it was a big surprise to everybody.
464
00:42:26,861 --> 00:42:29,932
Pointing relies on a
particular mental skill,
465
00:42:30,610 --> 00:42:33,620
a little difference that
makes a big difference.
466
00:42:33,690 --> 00:42:38,571
Whenever I point, I'm actually directing
your attention towards a third object.
467
00:42:38,771 --> 00:42:41,929
And you have to understand that
my attention is on that object,
468
00:42:42,029 --> 00:42:45,589
and that I'm asking you, now,
to attend to the same object.
469
00:42:46,064 --> 00:42:48,928
So there's sort of a triangle
between us and the object.
470
00:42:50,221 --> 00:42:55,067
This mental skill, this "triangle,"
turbocharges teamwork.
471
00:42:55,332 --> 00:42:58,020
What you'll see with the
human mother and baby
472
00:42:58,220 --> 00:43:01,085
is that the mother is constantly
trying to show the baby what to do,
473
00:43:01,285 --> 00:43:04,903
and the baby is trying to tune
into what the mother wants.
474
00:43:05,761 --> 00:43:09,571
And so you have a full triangle
of mother and baby
475
00:43:10,356 --> 00:43:13,425
and the thing in the environment
that they are trying to work on.
476
00:43:18,665 --> 00:43:21,279
It's a special cognitive achievement.
477
00:43:25,418 --> 00:43:29,014
For some reason kids do this naturally,
almost immediately.
478
00:43:29,791 --> 00:43:33,470
And curiously, apes can't get into that.
479
00:43:34,419 --> 00:43:36,101
At the moment we have no evidence
480
00:43:36,201 --> 00:43:39,502
that apes have shared goals based
on shared commitments.
481
00:43:40,962 --> 00:43:43,926
They do things together, they coordinate
their actions together,
482
00:43:44,126 --> 00:43:46,384
but they don't have a shared
commitment to a shared goal.
483
00:43:48,431 --> 00:43:51,563
The triangle is the core skill that
makes teaching possible.
484
00:43:51,931 --> 00:43:54,741
Humans have it; apes seem to lack it.
485
00:44:00,664 --> 00:44:03,170
But apes are also
missing one more thing.
486
00:44:03,576 --> 00:44:05,456
It's a key emotional driver:
487
00:44:07,541 --> 00:44:09,483
the passion to cheer each other on.
488
00:44:13,486 --> 00:44:16,008
"Good," "good job," "well done."
489
00:44:17,938 --> 00:44:26,339
This kind of facilitation, giving a hand,
encouragement, is the base of teaching.
490
00:44:26,539 --> 00:44:29,918
It seems like it's not just a cognitive
capacity that's necessary for teaching.
491
00:44:30,018 --> 00:44:32,771
There's this other thing,
which is wanting to teach,
492
00:44:33,716 --> 00:44:38,250
that seems to be really pervasive in humans
and maybe mysteriously missing in apes.
493
00:44:42,075 --> 00:44:43,756
The pieces are now coming together.
494
00:44:44,148 --> 00:44:47,937
Apes have a culture, a rare achievement
in the animal world.
495
00:44:48,903 --> 00:44:51,490
They can learn from each
other through imitation.
496
00:44:52,125 --> 00:44:57,332
But this process is passive, often slow
and can easily backslide.
497
00:44:57,466 --> 00:44:59,293
Probably there's a lot of slippage.
498
00:44:59,293 --> 00:45:02,381
There's a lot of loss of
cultural innovations
499
00:45:02,381 --> 00:45:05,755
between generations when you're
talking about a chimpanzee.
500
00:45:05,855 --> 00:45:09,563
If an ape invents something new and
important and interesting,
501
00:45:09,663 --> 00:45:12,048
maybe some others will learn it,
maybe they won't.
502
00:45:14,554 --> 00:45:16,060
Unique among animals,
503
00:45:16,060 --> 00:45:19,548
humans have both the passion and
mental skill to teach each other.
504
00:45:20,799 --> 00:45:25,087
When you're a student rather than a
spectator, learning happens rapidly.
505
00:45:25,537 --> 00:45:27,845
That's because teaching
locks in progress.
506
00:45:29,928 --> 00:45:33,281
Human culture traditions
have a cumulative quality
507
00:45:33,381 --> 00:45:37,147
that each generation builds on the
things of the previous generation.
508
00:45:37,247 --> 00:45:40,247
So if you looked at the history of any
interesting technology,
509
00:45:40,447 --> 00:45:44,852
it started out simple, and the children of
that generation learned the simple version.
510
00:45:44,952 --> 00:45:47,778
But then some genius made
an improvement to it,
511
00:45:47,978 --> 00:45:52,400
and everyone follows right away, and we
get this ratcheting up in complexity.
512
00:45:55,883 --> 00:45:58,099
An ape may stand on
another's shoulders,
513
00:45:58,399 --> 00:46:02,188
but only humans can stand on the
intellectual shoulders of giants.
514
00:46:02,779 --> 00:46:06,424
It's such a great privilege to be able to
work with these animals and try to understand
515
00:46:06,524 --> 00:46:09,561
what's going on in their head when they
look at you so gingerly and softly.
516
00:46:09,661 --> 00:46:12,085
Is it they're thinking,
"Oh, he's such a nice guy,
517
00:46:12,185 --> 00:46:14,123
and boy, I wish I knew what was
going on in his head?"
518
00:46:14,927 --> 00:46:17,105
Or is she thinking,
"Gosh, what's that spot?
519
00:46:17,205 --> 00:46:18,647
Is it dirt? Could I eat that?"
520
00:46:22,001 --> 00:46:23,666
In spite of their limitations,
521
00:46:23,866 --> 00:46:29,319
when we look into the eyes of a fellow ape,
we don't feel a gap but a deep connection.
522
00:46:30,957 --> 00:46:33,657
We can't resist a chimp
reaching out for help,
523
00:46:34,318 --> 00:46:38,448
or a group of unrelated bonobos rallying
to the defense of another,
524
00:46:39,572 --> 00:46:42,920
or a mother refusing to let
go of her dead baby.
525
00:46:53,586 --> 00:46:55,445
But as the most social of apes,
526
00:46:55,645 --> 00:47:01,147
we can't help reading thoughts and feelings
into the mind behind any familiar face.
527
00:47:04,179 --> 00:47:07,813
And perhaps that says more
about us than them.